A groundbreaking study examining the psychological profiles of Christians and atheists has revealed that religious individuals display both higher levels of self-compassion and greater grandiose narcissism compared to their non-religious counterparts. The research, published in Pastoral Psychology on 12 July 2025, offers fresh insights into how religious affiliation shapes personality traits and emotional wellbeing.
The study, conducted by Michael W. Magee, associate professor of psychology at St. Joseph’s University in Brooklyn, surveyed 631 adults aged 18 to 40 across the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. Participants were nearly evenly split between self-identified Christians (303) and atheists (328), providing a robust comparison between the two groups.
Christians scored significantly higher on all six components of self-compassion, including self-kindness, mindfulness, and common humanity. However, they also demonstrated elevated levels of grandiose narcissism, particularly in areas related to exhibitionism and seeking admiration. Surprisingly, both groups showed similar levels of fragile narcissism and shame, challenging assumptions about religious guilt.
Complex Psychological Patterns Emerge
The findings reveal a nuanced psychological landscape that defies simple categorisation. While Christians reported being more understanding and patient toward their personal flaws, they simultaneously showed tendencies toward moral superiority and self-enhancement.
“My study reveals that religious and non-religious identity shapes self-perception in complex and sometimes unexpected ways,” Magee told researchers. “Compared to the atheists in the sample, Christians reported higher levels of self-compassion—being kind and understanding toward oneself—but also showed greater grandiose narcissism, reflecting feelings of moral or spiritual superiority.”
The research utilised validated psychological questionnaires, including the Self-Compassion Scale – Short Form and the Narcissistic Personality Inventory-13. Participants rated statements such as “I try to be understanding and patient toward those aspects of my personality I don’t like” alongside measures of self-importance and attention-seeking behaviours.
Unexpected Findings on Shame and Vulnerability
Perhaps the most surprising result was the absence of differences in shame levels between Christians and atheists. Despite widespread cultural narratives about religious guilt, both groups reported identical levels of shame across behavioural, characterological, and bodily domains.
“I was actually surprised by the null shame finding,” Magee explained. “There were no observable differences in levels of self-reported shame between either group, which is interesting because shame has a robust direct relationship to narcissism—particularly fragile narcissism.”
The study also found no significant differences in fragile narcissism, the more vulnerable form characterised by hypersensitivity to criticism and low self-esteem. This suggests that emotional vulnerabilities may transcend religious boundaries and stem from factors beyond belief systems.
Implications for Mental Health Treatment
The research raises important questions for therapists, counsellors, and spiritual care providers working with religious and non-religious clients. The findings suggest that Christians who report high self-compassion may still struggle with narcissistic tendencies, particularly if they view themselves as morally superior to others.
“The key message is that psychological strengths and vulnerabilities aren’t determined solely by religious affiliation,” Magee said. “Instead, each individual’s emotional well-being arises from their unique combination of beliefs, values, and experiences.”
The study’s implications extend to pastoral counselling and spiritual care settings, where practitioners may need to address both the benefits and potential pitfalls of religious identity. While religious communities often provide valuable support and teachings that encourage compassion, they may also inadvertently foster self-enhancement in moral or spiritual domains.
Background on Self-Compassion Research
Magee, who runs a public education initiative called SelfCompassionNYC.com and holds trained teacher status with the Center of Mindful Self-Compassion, designed the study to explore the intersection of his research interests in religious attitudes and self-compassion practices.
Self-compassion has been widely studied for its associations with psychological wellbeing, reduced distress, and increased resilience. Research indicates it offers similar benefits to self-esteem—less depression, greater happiness—without the downsides of comparison and competition.
Unlike self-esteem, which often relies on feeling special or above average, self-compassion involves treating oneself with kindness during difficult times without requiring superiority over others. Previous studies have linked self-compassion interventions with reductions in both fragile narcissism and shame.
Grandiose Exhibitionism Drives Differences
The narcissism differences between Christians and atheists were primarily driven by one specific aspect: grandiose exhibitionism, which includes tendencies to show off and seek admiration. No significant differences emerged in other narcissistic dimensions such as leadership/authority or entitlement/exploitativeness.
This pattern suggests that religious settings may particularly encourage self-enhancement in visible, performative ways rather than in more covert forms of narcissism. The communal nature of religious practice, with its public displays of faith and moral behaviour, may create opportunities for exhibitionistic tendencies to flourish.
Study Limitations and Future Research
Magee acknowledged several limitations of the research, including its reliance on self-reported data and a predominantly White, Western sample. Online data collection also presents challenges regarding participant attention and environmental control.
“Observable statistical differences like these in self-reported attitudes do not necessarily translate into any appreciable differences in behavior,” Magee cautioned. “And it is really important to keep this in mind and not to over-extend any interpretations.”
The effect sizes ranged from small to medium, suggesting that while statistically significant, the practical impact of these differences may be modest in everyday life. Future research will need to explore whether these self-reported differences translate into observable behavioural patterns.
Moving Forward with Experimental Approaches
Looking ahead, Magee plans to investigate these findings further through experimental methods. Next semester, students in his Social Cognition Lab at St. Joseph’s University will explore ways to manipulate self-compassion through cognitive priming techniques.
“Once that is achieved, it would be interesting to see if such an experimental design has a differential effect on Christians and atheists—or any other social groups for that matter,” Magee said.
The researcher emphasised the practical value of self-compassion practices regardless of religious affiliation. “Most people are more compassionate to other people than they are to themselves,” he noted. “Self-compassion is simply bringing ourselves into the circle of kindness we have for the other loved ones in our lives—and self-compassion is a skill that improves with practice.”
Broader Context of Religious Trends
The study emerges against a backdrop of changing religious demographics in the United States. Recent data from the Pew Research Center indicates that 29 per cent of Americans now identify as religiously unaffiliated, up from 16 per cent in 2007, while Christianity continues to decline across most demographic groups.
These shifting patterns make understanding the psychological profiles of different belief groups increasingly relevant for mental health professionals and researchers. As religious and non-religious worldviews continue to evolve, tailored approaches to emotional wellbeing that respect diverse perspectives become essential.
The research suggests that supporting emotional health effectively might mean adopting approaches that promote humility, emotional awareness, and self-compassion while remaining sensitive to individuals’ religious or secular orientations. Neither religious belief nor atheism appears to offer complete protection against psychological vulnerabilities, highlighting the universal human need for balanced self-regard and genuine compassion.
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